Class 12th

11.5 In this reaction, when propene reacts with the given reagent then the double bond of propene breaks down with charges on them. So, H⁺ gets placed on the carbon which already has two hydrogen atom and OH^- gets substituted on center carbon because it has the more positive charge which attracts OH^-. Thus we get propene-2-or as a

2. In this reaction, when Methyl ( 2-oxocyclohexyl) ethanoate reacts with the given reagent then the double bond between the oxygen atom and cyclohexyl gets breaks down, such that O has a negative charge and that particular carbon will have a positive charge on it. So, to neutralize it, H⁺ gets substituted to that carbon and with O^- to form the structure of alcohol. Thus we get Methyl (2-hydroxycyclohexyl) ethanoate as a

3. In this reaction, when 2-Methylbutanal reacts with the given reagent NaBH₄, then the double bond between carbon and oxygen gets to break down in the above aldehyde compound, where

4. carbon has positive charge and oxygen will have a negative charge on So, H⁺ gets placed on the carbon to complete its octet and H⁺ gets substituted on O^- to form OH, i.e, an alcohol. Thus we get 2-Methylbutan-1-ol as a product.

11.4 In the Grignard reagent reaction, the first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard reagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct, Hydrolysis of adduct results in the formation of alcohol.

Here, is the general reaction with Grignard reagent below:-

From here, it is clear that HCHO gives CH₂OH groups, so R of Grignard reagent is the remaining part of given alcohols. Thus, select the suitable Grignard reagent by substituting the value of R. Now we can see the reaction given below:-

Methanal reacts with iso-propyl magnesium bromide, in presence of dry ether gives an additional compound. And this additional compound on reaction with H₂O /H⁺ gives iso-butyl alcohol (i.e., 2-methylpropane-1-ol) as one of the final product.

Methanal reacts with cyclohexyl magnesium bromide, in presence of dry ether, which gives an intermediate product. This intermediate product when reacts with given reagent, as shown above, gives cyclohexyl methanol as a product.

Ferromagnetism: The substances that are strongly attracted by a magnetic field are called ferromagnetic substances can be permanently magnetised even in the absence of a magnetic field. Some examples of ferromagnetic substances are iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, and CrO₂. In solid state, the metal ions of ferromagnetic substances are grouped together into small regions called domains and each domain acts as a tiny magnet. In an un-magnetised piece of a ferromagnetic substance, the domains are randomly-oriented and so, their magnetic moments get cancelled. However, when the substance is placed in a magnetic field, all the domains get oriented in the direction of the magnetic field. As a result, a strong magnetic effect is produced. This ordering of domains persists even after the removal of the magnetic field. Thus, the ferromagnetic substance becomes a permanent magnet.

Paramagnetism: The substances that are attracted by a magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances. Some examples of paramagnetic substances are O₂, Cu^2t, Fe^3t, and Cr^3t. Paramagnetic substances get magnetised in a magnetic field in the same direction, but lose magnetism when the magnetic field is removed. To undergo paramagnetism, a substance must have one or more unpaired electrons. This is because the unpaired electrons are attracted by a magnetic field, thereby causing paramagnetism.

Ferrimagnetism: The substances in which the magnetic moments of the domains are aligned in parallel and anti-parallel directions, in unequal numbers, are said to have Examples include Fe₃O₄ (magnetite), ferrites such as MgFe₂O₄ and ZnFe₂O_4. Ferrimagnetic substances are weakly attracted by a magnetic field as compared to ferromagnetic substances. On heating, these substances become paramagnetic.

Antiferromagnetism: Antiferromagnetic substances have domain structures similar to ferromagnetic substances, but are oppositely-oriented. The oppositely-oriented domains cancel out each other's magnetic

12-16 and 13-15 group compounds: The 12-16 group compounds are prepared by combining group 12 and group 16 elements and the 13-15 group compounds are prepared by combining group 13 and group15 elements. These compounds are prepared to stimulate average valence of four as in Ge or Si. Indium (III) antimonide (IrSb), aluminum phosphide (AlP), and gallium arsenide (GaAS) are typical compounds of groups 13-15. GaAs semiconductors have a very fast response time and have revolutionised the designing of semiconductor devices. Examples of group 12-16 compounds include zinc sulphide (ZnS), cadmium sulphide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe), and mercury (II) telluride (HgTe). The bonds in these compounds are not perfectly covalent. The ionic character of the bonds depends on the electronegativities of the two elements.

Schottky defect: Schottky defect is basically a vacancy defect shown by ionic solids. In this defect, an equal number of cations and anions are missing to maintain electrical neutrality. It decreases the density of a substance. Significant number of Schottky defects is present in ionic solids. For example, in NaCl, there are approximately 106 Schottky pairs per cm3 at room temperature. Ionic substances containing similar-sized cations and anions show this type of defect. For example: NaCl, KCl, CsCl, AgBr, etc.
Frenkel defect: Ionic solids containing large differences in the sizes of ions show this type of defect. When the smaller ion (usually cation) is dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial site, Frenkel defect is created. It creates a vacancy defect as well as an interstitial defect. Frenkel defect is also known as dislocation defect. Ionic solids such as AgCl, AgBr, AgI, and ZnS show this type of defect.
Interstitials: Interstitial defect is shown by non-ionic solids. This type of defect is created when some constituent particles (atoms or molecules) occupy an interstitial site of the crystal. The density of a substance increases because of this defect.
F-centres: When the anionic sites of a crystal are occupied by unpaired electrons, the ionic sites are called F-centres. These unpaired electrons impart colour to the crystals. For example, when crystals of NaCl are heated in an atmosphere of sodium vapour, the sodium atoms are deposited on the surface of the crystal. The Cl ions diffuse from the crystal to its surface and combine with Na atoms, forming NaCl. During this process, the Na atoms on the surface of the crystal lose electrons. These released electrons diffuse into the crystal and occupy the vacant anionic sites, creating F-centres.