Ncert Solutions Physics Class 12th

Where every point has the same electric potential, it is an equipotential surface:

The main characterstics include:

• Two equipotential surfaces never intersect.
• The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
• Equipotential surfaces are parallel planes in a uniform electric field.
• If the surfaces are closer, the field in that region will be stronger.

The negative gradient of the electric potential is called an electric field. The electric field points in the direction of the steepest decrease of potential. The electric field is defined in a simpler terms as equal to the change in potential per unit displacement.  The electric field is strong, if the potential decreases sharply over a small distance. The electric field can be calculated using this relationship if the potential distribution is known, and vice versa. It is important for the understanding of the energy transfer in electrostatics and charge dynamics.

At any point, the electrostatic potential is the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to that point in an electric field. It is done without acceleration. It is denoted by V and it is a scalar quantity.
? =? /Q
where? is the work done and q is the test charge. 
The electrostatic potential helps in quantifying the energy configuration of charges. The unit is volt (V), where 1 V = 1 J/C. 

The fundamental relationship between the resulting electric field and electric charge distribution is given by Gauss's law.
It states that the total electric flux (? E) passing through any closed hypothetical surface (called a Gaussian surface) is equal to 1/?0 times the net electric charge (q enc ) enclosed within that surface.
When dealing with charge distributions that possess a high degree of symmetry such as planar, cylindrical, and spherical, Gauss's law significance lies in providing a powerful alternative method to Coulomb's law for calculating electric fields.
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The quantization of charge can be denoted as e = 1.6 * 10? ¹? C. It means that the object's charge is an integral multiple of the elementary charge. Mathematically, it can be represented as q = ±ne, where n is an integer. The charge exists in discrete packets or quanta and is not continuous. For example, a body cannot have a charge of 2.5e but a charge of 3e or -2e. Millikan first observed this quantization of charge in his oil drop experiment. Quantization is consistent with the matter's atomic structure and is a fundamental property of electric charge.