Chemistry

11.36 

During the reaction, an alkoxide ion is formed which is then added to an alkyl halide to form the ether via S_N2 mechanism.

In the primary step, the nucleophile is formed (O^- ) which will the approach to the alkyl halide and after the transition stage, the substitution takes place.

During the reaction, an alkoxide ion is formed which is then added to an alkyl halide to form the ether via S_N2 mechanism.

During the reaction, an alkoxide ion is formed which is then added to an alkyl halide to form the ether via S_N2 mechanism.

During the reaction, an alkoxide ion is formed which is then added to an alkyl halide to form the ether via S_N2 mechanism.

Steam distillation is applied to separate substances which are steam volatile and are immiscible with water. In steam distillation, steam from a steam generator is passed through a heated flask containing the liquid to be distilled. The mixture of steam and the volatile organic compound is condensed and collected. The compound is later separated from water using a separating funnel. In steam distillation, the liquid boils when the sum of vapour pressures due to the organic liquid (p1) and that due to water (p2) becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure (p), i.e. p =p1+ p2.  Since p1 is lower than p, the organic liquid vaporises at lower temperature than its boiling point.

11.33

Acidified KMnO₄ (potassium permanganate)

Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidant and is able to react with many functional groups. Here KMnO₄ will readily react with primary carbon (where hydrogen is attached) and transforms that to acid.

2. PCC (Pyridinium Chlorochromate)

This is actually a milder version of chromic acid. This works as a sort of elimination reaction. The formation of aldehyde occurs because of the action chromium (a good leaving group) which will be replaced when the C-H bond is broken.

3. Bromine water

Bromine water is actually an aqueous form of bromine. Here in aqueous solution, phenol ionizes to form phenoxide ion due to the presence of negative charge, the oxygen of phenoxide ion donates electron on benzene ring to a large extent, as a result, the ring gets highly activated and hence tri-substituion occurs.

4. Acidified KMnO₄ (potassium permanganate)

Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidant and oxidizes benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid. The compound is used due to its high oxidation power and the reaction proceeds due to the presence of hydrogen attached to the carbon group (Benzylic position)

5. Sulphuric acid or concentrated Phosphoric acid

Alcohols are amphoteric. So, the lone pair of oxygen atoms makes the -OH group weakly basic. Thus, in the presence of a strong acid, R—OH acts as a base and protonates into the very acidic alkyloxonium ion ⁺OH₂.This basic characteristic of alcohol necessarily helps in conversion to propene when dehydrated with a strong acid.

6. LiAlH₄ (lithium aluminum hydride) or NaBH₄

Both compounds are best-reducing agents containing 4 Hydrogen atoms each. In reaction with a ketone, the double bond is reduced and hydrogen atoms are substituted to form alcohol.