Chemistry

4.5.  Kössel and Lewis developed an important theory of chemical combination between atoms known as electronic theory of chemical bonding. According to this rule, atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another (gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet in their valence shells. This is known as octet rule.

Significance: It helps to explain why different atoms combine with each other to form ionic compounds or covalent compounds.

Limitations of Octet rule:

According to Octet rule, atoms take part in chemical combination to achieve the configuration of the nearest noble gas elements. However, some of noble gas elements like Xenon have formed compounds with fluorine and oxygen. For example: XeF₂, XeF₄  Therefore, validity of the octet rule has been challenged. This theory does not account for shape of molecules.

Stability of odd electron species: Molecules like NO and NO₂ do not satisfy the octet rule and yet they exist as stable molecules. The octet rule failed to explain the reason for this.

Expansion of octet: The rule could not explain the stability of compounds which have more than 8 valence electrons around the central atom. For eg SF₆, PF₅, IF₇

Electron deficient compounds: The octet rule could not explain the stability of electron deficient compounds like LiCl, AlCl₃, BH₃

4.4. 

The properties of molecules and compounds are determined by their molecular structure, which is the arrangement of the atoms in space. The molecular structure is determined by the type of bond and the number and arrangement of atoms in the molecule. The shape of the molecule affects its polarity, reactivity, and physical properties such as boiling point, melting point, and solubility.

The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict the molecular structure of covalent molecules based on the repulsion between valence electron pairs. This theory states that the electron pairs in the valence shell of an atom repel each other and try to occupy positions that minimise repulsion. The VSEPR theory is used to predict the geometry and shape of molecules, such as linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, and octahedral.

In summary, chemical bonding and molecular structure are important concepts in chemistry that help us understand the behaviour and properties of molecules and compounds. The type of bond and molecular structure determine the properties of a substance, including its reactivity, polarity, and physical properties. The VSEPR theory is a useful tool for predicting the molecular structure of covalent molecules based on the repulsion between valence electron pairs.

11.5 In this reaction, when propene reacts with the given reagent then the double bond of propene breaks down with charges on them. So, H⁺ gets placed on the carbon which already has two hydrogen atom and OH^- gets substituted on center carbon because it has the more positive charge which attracts OH^-. Thus we get propene-2-or as a

2. In this reaction, when Methyl ( 2-oxocyclohexyl) ethanoate reacts with the given reagent then the double bond between the oxygen atom and cyclohexyl gets breaks down, such that O has a negative charge and that particular carbon will have a positive charge on it. So, to neutralize it, H⁺ gets substituted to that carbon and with O^- to form the structure of alcohol. Thus we get Methyl (2-hydroxycyclohexyl) ethanoate as a

3. In this reaction, when 2-Methylbutanal reacts with the given reagent NaBH₄, then the double bond between carbon and oxygen gets to break down in the above aldehyde compound, where

4. carbon has positive charge and oxygen will have a negative charge on So, H⁺ gets placed on the carbon to complete its octet and H⁺ gets substituted on O^- to form OH, i.e, an alcohol. Thus we get 2-Methylbutan-1-ol as a product.