Chemistry

Schottky defect: Schottky defect is basically a vacancy defect shown by ionic solids. In this defect, an equal number of cations and anions are missing to maintain electrical neutrality. It decreases the density of a substance. Significant number of Schottky defects is present in ionic solids. For example, in NaCl, there are approximately 106 Schottky pairs per cm3 at room temperature. Ionic substances containing similar-sized cations and anions show this type of defect. For example: NaCl, KCl, CsCl, AgBr, etc.
Frenkel defect: Ionic solids containing large differences in the sizes of ions show this type of defect. When the smaller ion (usually cation) is dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial site, Frenkel defect is created. It creates a vacancy defect as well as an interstitial defect. Frenkel defect is also known as dislocation defect. Ionic solids such as AgCl, AgBr, AgI, and ZnS show this type of defect.
Interstitials: Interstitial defect is shown by non-ionic solids. This type of defect is created when some constituent particles (atoms or molecules) occupy an interstitial site of the crystal. The density of a substance increases because of this defect.
F-centres: When the anionic sites of a crystal are occupied by unpaired electrons, the ionic sites are called F-centres. These unpaired electrons impart colour to the crystals. For example, when crystals of NaCl are heated in an atmosphere of sodium vapour, the sodium atoms are deposited on the surface of the crystal. The Cl ions diffuse from the crystal to its surface and combine with Na atoms, forming NaCl. During this process, the Na atoms on the surface of the crystal lose electrons. These released electrons diffuse into the crystal and occupy the vacant anionic sites, creating F-centres.

(i) The two substituents in the benzene ring are present at p-positions. Therefore, the sequence of reactions should be such that first an o, p-directing group, i.e., Br atom should be introduced in the benzene ring and this should be followed by nitration. Thus,

 

(ii) Here since the two substituents are at p-position w.r.t. each other, therefore, the first substituent in the benzene ring should be a o, p-directing group (i.e., CH₃) and then the other group (i.e., NO₂) should be introduced. Therefore, the sequence of reactions is:

 

(iii) Here since the two substituents are at m-position w.r.t. each other, therefore, the first substituent in the benzene ring should be a m-directing group (i.e., NO₂) and then other group (i.e., Cl) should be introduced.

(iv) Acetophenone can be prepared by F.C. acylation using either acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride.