NCERT

While studying the mechanical properties of solids, stress and strain are fundamental concepts.

Stress: It refers to the condition when the external force is applied to a solid body and it experiences an internal restoring force per unit area. The resisting deformation due to the internal force is called stress. The formula is:

The SI unit of stress is N/m² (Pascal, Pa).

There are three types of stress -

1. When the applied force increases the length of the body, it is called tensile stress.
2. When the applied force decreases the length of the body, it is termed as the compressive stress.
3. When the force is applied tangentially and creates deformation in shape, it is called shear stress.

Strain: It is a dimension less quantity. It refers to the relative deformation produced in a body due to applied stress. The formula is:

There are three types of strain:

1. Change in length per unit original length is called the Longitudinal Strain.
2. The change in volume per unit original volume is called the Volumetric Strain.
3. Angular deformation due to shear stress is called Shear Strain.

Hooke's Law relates stress and strain by a formula. It states that within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain:

E stands for the modulus of elasticity.

Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia (NH3 ) by replacing hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of hydrogen substitutions. Their nomenclature follows IUPAC rules, using the suffix “-amine.” There are several important topics discussed throghout the chapter 9 amines such as Preparation methods, physical properties, chemical properties and named reactions.

Amines are synthesized through methods like reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis, Gabriel phthalimide synthesis, and Hoffmann bromamide degradation.  In terms of physical properties, Amines exhibit hydrogen bonding, affecting their boiling points and solubility. Chemically, amines are basic in nature and undergo alkylation, acylation, and electrophilic substitution in aromatic amines. Amines are widely used in chemical industries; pharmaceuticals, dyes, and organic synthesis e.g. diazonium salts, formed from aromatic amines, are crucial in dye synthesis. Students can check NCERT Solutions of Class 12 Chemistry Amines for better preparation for boards and other competiive exam.

In Newton's Law of Gravitation, G (Universal Gravitational Constant) has a fixed value as it is a fundamental constant which is:

G determines the strength of gravitational interactions and it remains the same everywhere in the universe. It plays a significant role in cosmology and astrophysics and it is important in calculating the forces between celestial bodies. Due to the gravitational pull of a massive body like Earth, 'g' (Acceleration due to Gravity) is the acceleration which the object experiences. The value of g changes based on the planetary composition, latitude, and altitude. G is universal and g is dependent on the location. This relation can be understood by the following formula:

M represents the mass of the planet, and R is the radius. The concept and its differences help in fields such as space exploration where astronauts experience microgravity in orbit even though the gravitational forces are present.

Students can access the Class 12 Chemistry Aldehyde Ketone and Carboxylic Acids NCERT Solutions for all chapters in our pages. We also provide PDF of NCERT Solutions of all chapter for free. Students can use following steps to download Aldehyde Ketone and Carboxylic Acids NCERT Solution PDF;

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Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 8 Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids consists important topics such as the structure, nomenclature, preparation, and chemical properties of these important organic compounds. Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 8 covers key reactions like nucleophilic addition, oxidation, reduction, aldol condensation, and Cannizzaro reaction. The acidic nature and reactivity of carboxylic acids are also discussed in NCERT Chemistry Chapter 8 Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids. These compounds have vast applications in medicines, perfumes, food preservatives, and industrial solvents.

To help understand the topic, we have provided NCERT Solutions for Class 12 chapter 8 on our website. Students can get to know about important topics, reactions and solutions on the same page.