Reading Comprehension

The passage given below is followed by four alternate summaries. Choose the option that best captures the essence of the passage.

We have almost completely substituted all previous forms of communication, transportation, and other aspects of our society with the creation of newer, more industrial methods and apparatuses. Before the invention of motorized vehicles, people rode horse-drawn carriages to get from one place to another. Before the creation of mobile cellular devices, people sent handwritten letters and postcards in the mail. Before the establishment of the internet, most leisure activities and social interactions were conducted outdoors and in person.

Four jumbled up sentences, related to a topic, are given below. Three of them can be put together to form a coherent paragraph. Identify the odd one out.

1. The prize has a global remit, featuring entrants from Canada and China to New Zealand, Niger and the Netherlands.

2. First, at foundation level, there were obstructions and deep geological scour hollows that created significant risk when combining the new structures with those already in place.

3. The firm also worked hard to restore the external fabric of the building to maximise its reuse. 

4. Fire risk management also posed a big challenge – it is always highly complex in this kind of mixed-use building, especially since the Grenfell Tower fire.

The four sentences (labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) below, when properly sequenced, would yield a coherent paragraph. Decide on the proper sequencing of the order of the sentences and choose the correct option.

1. The polymerization of amino acids to form long protein-like molecules (“proteinoids”) was accomplished through dry heating by American biochemist Sidney Fox and his colleagues. 

2. The polyamine acids that he formed are not random molecules unrelated to life.

3.They have distinct catalytic activities. 

4. Long polymers of amino acids were also produced from hydrogen cyanide and anhydrous liquid ammonia by American chemist Clifford Matthews in simulations of the early upper atmosphere.

The four sentences (labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) below, when properly sequenced, would yield a coherent paragraph. Decide on the proper sequencing of the order of the sentences and choose the correct option.

1. But for those who reach an extreme old age, having lost parents, siblings and contemporaries who knew them when they were young, even the presence of children and grandchildren may not entirely erase this “last man standing” loneliness.

2. There is, too, the darkness of a projected future where there is no one still living who remembers us.

3. The mother's situation references another source of grief: that of the person who becomes the last of their friends and family still standing.

4. In childhood games of this nature there would be a prize for the survivor. 

The four sentences (labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) below, when properly sequenced, would yield a coherent paragraph. Decide on the proper sequencing of the order of the sentences and choose the correct option.

1. Mirrors to our own history, in particular colonial exploitations, aliens are often portrayed as evil invaders bent on coming here to wreak havoc.

2. In the long list of modern fears, bloodthirsty aliens may not rank near the top.

3. We have more immediate worries, from terrorism and bioengineered (or not) global epidemics to nuclear holocaust and natural disasters.

4. However, the notion that other intelligences exist out there in the universe is pervasive in popular culture. 

Slang, unconventional words or phrases that express either something new or something old in a new way. It is flippant, irreverent, indecorous; it may be indecent or obscene. Its colourful metaphors are generally directed at respectability, and it is this succinct, sometimes witty, frequently impertinent social criticism that gives slang its characteristic flavour. Slang, then, includes not just words but words used in a special way in a certain social context. The origin of the word slang itself is obscure; it first appeared in print around 1800, applied to the speech of disreputable and criminal classes in London. The term, however, was probably used much earlier.

Other related types of nonstandard word usage include cant and jargon, synonyms for a vague and high-sounding or technical and esoteric language not immediately intelligible to the uninitiated. In England, the term cant still indicates the specialized speech of criminals, which, in the United States, is more often called argot. The term dialect refers to language characteristic of a certain geographic area or social class.

Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Slang sometimes stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behaviour, and attitudes; e.g., “shotgun wedding,” “cake eater,” “greasy spoon.” Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who coined “serendipity” more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang terms.

Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that depends on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, for policemen, were not created by officers of the law.

Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man, and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.

Which of the following best captures the basic difference between dominant culture and subculture?

Slang, unconventional words or phrases that express either something new or something old in a new way. It is flippant, irreverent, indecorous; it may be indecent or obscene. Its colourful metaphors are generally directed at respectability, and it is this succinct, sometimes witty, frequently impertinent social criticism that gives slang its characteristic flavour. Slang, then, includes not just words but words used in a special way in a certain social context. The origin of the word slang itself is obscure; it first appeared in print around 1800, applied to the speech of disreputable and criminal classes in London. The term, however, was probably used much earlier.

Other related types of nonstandard word usage include cant and jargon, synonyms for a vague and high-sounding or technical and esoteric language not immediately intelligible to the uninitiated. In England, the term cant still indicates the specialized speech of criminals, which, in the United States, is more often called argot. The term dialect refers to language characteristic of a certain geographic area or social class.

Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Slang sometimes stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behaviour, and attitudes; e.g., “shotgun wedding,” “cake eater,” “greasy spoon.” Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who coined “serendipity” more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang terms.

Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that depends on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, for policemen, were not created by officers of the law.

Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man, and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.

All of the following strengthens the author's claims regarding slang EXCEPT

Direction for question: The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

Slang, unconventional words or phrases that express either something new or something old in a new way. It is flippant, irreverent, indecorous; it may be indecent or obscene. Its colourful metaphors are generally directed at respectability, and it is this succinct, sometimes witty, frequently impertinent social criticism that gives slang its characteristic flavour. Slang, then, includes not just words but words used in a special way in a certain social context. The origin of the word slang itself is obscure; it first appeared in print around 1800, applied to the speech of disreputable and criminal classes in London. The term, however, was probably used much earlier.

Other related types of nonstandard word usage include cant and jargon, synonyms for a vague and high-sounding or technical and esoteric language not immediately intelligible to the uninitiated. In England, the term cant still indicates the specialized speech of criminals, which, in the United States, is more often called argot. The term dialect refers to language characteristic of a certain geographic area or social class.

Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Slang sometimes stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behaviour, and attitudes; e.g., “shotgun wedding,” “cake eater,” “greasy spoon.” Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who coined “serendipity” more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang terms.

Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that depends on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, for policemen, were not created by officers of the law.

Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man, and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.

Which of the following terms indicate the following meaning “A variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular area or social group”?

Titanium gets its name from the Titans of ancient Greek mythology but this thoroughly modern material is well suited to a huge range of high-tech applications. With the chemical symbol Ti and an atomic number of 22, titanium is a silver-coloured metal valued for its low density, high strength, and resistance to corrosion. Since then, the applications for this metal have grown exponentially, from its use (as titanium dioxide) in paints, paper, toothpaste, sunscreen and cosmetics, through to its use as an alloy in biomedical implants and aerospace innovations. Particularly exciting is the perfect marriage between titanium and 3D printing.

Titanium materials are expensive and can be problematic when it comes to traditional processing technologies. For example, its high melting point (1,670?, much higher than steel alloys) is a challenge. The relatively low-cost precision of 3D printing is, therefore, a game-changer for titanium. 3D printing is where an object is built layer by layer and designers can create amazing shapes. This allows the production of complex shapes such as replacement parts of a jaw bone, heel, hip, dental implants, or cranioplasty plates in surgery. It can also be used to make golf clubs and aircraft components.

The CSIRO is working with industry to develop new technologies in 3D printing using titanium. Advances in 3D printing are opening up new avenues to further improve the function of customised body part implants made of titanium. Such implants can be designed to be porous, making them lighter but allowing blood, nutrients and nerves to pass through and can even promote bone in-growth.

Titanium is considered the most biocompatible metal – not harmful or toxic to living tissue – due to its resistance to corrosion from bodily fluids. This ability to withstand the harsh bodily environment is a result of the protective oxide film that forms naturally in the presence of oxygen.  Its ability to physically bond with bone also gives titanium an advantage over other materials that require the use of an adhesive to remain attached. Titanium implants last longer, and much larger forces are required to break the bonds that join them to the body compared with their alternatives.
Titanium alloys commonly used in load-bearing implants are significantly less stiff – and closer in performance to the human bone – than stainless steel or cobalt-based alloys.

Titanium weighs about half as much as steel but is 30% stronger, which makes it ideally suited to the aerospace industry where every gram matters.

In the late 1940s, the US government helped to get production of titanium going as it could see its potential for “aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and other military purposes”.

Titanium has increasingly become the buy-to-fly material for aircraft designers striving to develop faster, lighter and more efficient aircraft. About 39% of the US Air Force's F22 Raptor, one of the most advanced fighter aircraft in the world, is made of titanium. Civil aviation moved in the same direction with Boeing's new 787 Dreamliner made of 15% titanium, significantly more than previous models.

Two key areas where titanium is used in airliners is in their landing gear and jet engines. Landing gear needs to withstand the massive amounts of force exerted on it every time a plane hits a runway. Titanium's toughness means it can absorb the huge amounts of energy expelled when a plane lands without ever weakening. Titanium's heat resistance means it can be used inside modern jet engines, where temperatures can reach 800?. Steel begins to soften at around 400? but titanium can withstand the intense heat of a jet engine without losing its strength.